Art Deco Architects Outside North America : A Few of the Key Figures

Art Deco, though born in France, is sometimes mistakenly seen as a US and Canadian movement. While it is true that it was in North America that Art Deco architecture found its greatest and most prolific flowering, many of the greatest Art Deco buildings were built elsewhere.

This blog attempts to point out some (by no means all) of the major Art Deco architects outside North America. This is an eclectic list, representing my own (openly amateur) appreciation. This is by no means a comprehensive overview. For a fuller (though still incomplete) list of Art Deco architecture outside the United States and Canada, please see my post on the subject at http://davidvictorvector.blogspot.com/2014/07/art-deco-outside-north-america.html

There is a counterpart for US and Canadian Art Deco buildings at

http://davidvictorvector.blogspot.com/2014/07/notable-art-deco-architectural.html

French architects

Art Deco may take its name from the French but France, the birthplace of the movement, a has several major contributing architects to the movement.

René Levavasseur was one of the earliest French architects of note. His buildings were primarily
constructed in the port of Cherbourg which is where his Trans-Atlantic Station, Atlantic Hotel and Grand Magasins Ratti stand. His Trans-Atlantic Station (Gare Transatlantique) of 1925 was well-kn own in the United States where the influence of its design may arguably be seen.

René Levavasseur's Trans-Atlantic Station, Cherbourg

Louis Castel and Jacques Droz's
Church of Sainte Jeanne d'Arc, Nice

Louis Castel and Jacques Droz collaborated on the Church of Sainte Jeanne d'Arc in Nice with its eight elliptical domes made of (what was at the time of its construction in 1932-34) the innovative material of reinforced concrete. The Church of Sainte Jeanne d'Arc was controversial not only when it was first built but even today in Nice -- locals seem either to hate or love the building, known by the nickname "la Meringue" due to its foamy white color and its domes that some suggest look likes dollops of the dessert on a plate.

Albert Laprade was one of the most important architects of the era. He is most famous for his Villa Magdalena at Bénodet in Brittany and for his collaboration with Alfred Janniot on Paris' Palais de la Porte Dorée (now the Museum of Immigration. Laprade also was the architect behind several industrial projects including the Génissiat Dam, Injoux-Génissiat in the Rhône-Alpes, and the EDF Central Hydroelectric Plant at Bâthie (also in the Rhone-Alpes)

Auguste Bluysen was one of the more prolific Art Deco architects in France. He designed several casinos including the Casino du Lac at Bagnole-de-l'Orne amd tje Casino de Vittel. He was also was the architect behind several notable theaters including Paris' Grand Rex Cinema, Paris' Théâtre de la Michodière  and La Normandy Cinema (after it burned down as was rebuilt in 1927) at Touquet-Paris-Plage in the Pas de Calais.

Auguste Blusen's Casino de Vittel

Other notable French Art Deco architects include Léon Baille (best known for his Belvédère du Rayon Vert in Cerbère), the Russian-born Charlotte Perriand (one of the few women architects of the era, known for her interior design primarily but also for her buildings such as the innovative apartments on Rue Casimir Pinel Apartments in Neuilly-sur Seine). Max Sainsaulieu is the architect who designed the Carnegie Library at Reims and Contréxeville Station in the the Vosges department.

Three more of France's most important Art Deco architects are better known for their work in Brazil than in France.

Brazilian architects

Brazil was the home of some of the most important Art Deco architects outside of North America. That said, two of Brazil's most iconic Art Deco works are the product of Frenchmen.

Biarritz Building, Rio de Janeiro

Two French architects-- Auguste Rendu and Henri Paul Pierre Sajous-- created one of Latin America's best-known Art Deco buildings: the Biarritz Building in Rio de Janeiro.

Christ the Redeemer
Rio de Janeiro

Another Frenchman -- the Polish French sculptor Paul Landowski -- was responsible for another Brazilian Art Deco icon: the Christ the Redeemer statue overlooking Rio. Landowski worked with Brazilian engineer Heitor da Silva Costa on the largest Art Deco statue in the world.

Plinio Botelho do Aramal's
Bank of São Paulo Building

Brazil itself had several important contributors to the Art Deco movement. Gilson Gladstone Navarro introduced the Marajoara ancient cuture into Casa Marajoara creating the Marajoara Deco style.

Other major Brazilian Art Deco architects include Plínio Botelho do Amaral was the architect behind the Bank of São Paulo (today the Altino Arantes Building), for decades that cities tallest building. Plinio Botelho do Amaral also collaborated with (the future modernist architect Alfonso Eduardo Reidy to create Rio's Fórum Ministro Arnaldo Süssekind skyscraper. Raphael Galvão (another future modernist) designed Rio's Roxy Theater as well as the Casa Cavé and Cine Ipanema. Eduardo Pederneiras and Ernesto G. Fontes on Rio's Paysandú Hotel.

Rino Levi's Porchat Building, São Paulo

Rino Levi in his early works contributed several buildings to the Art Deco movement (although he would later become among the most preeminent modernists). Among Levi's most notable Art Deco works are São Paulo's Instituto Sedes Sapientiae, Guarani Building, Higienopolis Building, Niccolau Schlisser Building, Porchat Building and Cine Ipiranga. Levi also was among the first to bring Art Deco further north with his Ufo-Palacio Cinema and Cine Arte-Palacio both in Recife.

Other major Brazilian architects of Rio's Carioca Art Deco era include Arnaldo Gladosch (Itahy Building), Carlos Porto and Caio Moacyr (Petronio Building), Mario Santos Maia (Regional Labor Court) and  Leopoldo Queiroz (Copacobana's Brasil Building).


Uruguayan architects

Montevideo is one of the Art Deco capitals of the world. A confluence of factors met in the 1920's. Uruguay's 100th anniversary as a nation in 1925 came just as Art Deco made its appearance. This was also a time of considerable prosperity for the country. Uruguay wanted also to show its modernity and relatively greater economic development than some of its neighbors, and this was symbolized by the Art Deco Movement.  As Montevideo began to expand in size, it erected buildings to show its wealth and modernity as well as its national pride on its centennial. The result is a collection of Art Deco unrivaled in Latin America.

 Juan María Aubriot and Ricardo Valabrega's
Palacio Lapido, Montevideo

The key architects involved in the Art Deco outpouring are largely from Uruguay itself, as befits a nationalist pride on its centennial.  Mauricio Cravotto was the architect behind both the Hotel Rambla and the Montevideo City Hall. Jorge Herrán was the architect behind the Montevideo Yacht Club and the Customs Building (Dirección de Aduanas).  Rafael Ruano was responsible for such prominent buildings as the Edificio Proamar and the Cine Trocadero.  Both the Montevideo Clinical Hospital and the Instituti de Higiene were the work of Carlos Surraco. Edmundo Gonzala Vázquez Barriére and Radael Ruano (the latter actually a Costa Rican rather than from Uruguay originally) worked together to create the Palacio Diaz. Alberto Isola and Guillermo Armas worked together to create the iconic Palacio Rinaldi. Another famous Art Deco building -- the Palacio Lapido -- was the result of Juan María Aubriot and Ricardo Valabrega. Jorge Harran was the architect of the Comando General de la Armada Building, while the epnonymous Goyret Building was the work of Luis Aniceto Goyret. Most of these prominent Uruguyan architects were responsible for other buildings besides these prominent one. Moreover, there are many other works throughout Montevideo in the Art Deco style, of which this is just a list of some of the most notable examples.

UK architects

Scotland

Scotland's Thomas Smith Tait designed St. Andrew's House (the seat of Scotland's government) as well as the pylons of Australia's iconic Sydney Harbour Bridge. Other Tait works include Fleet Street's Daily Telegraph Building  and Selfridge's Department Store both in London as well as the eponymous Tait Tower in Bellahouston Park, Glasgow.

Archibald Leitch's Arsenal Stadium, London
in its original form

Scotland's Archibald Leitch was famous as the designer of British football stadiums, most in the Art Deco style. These include Goodison Park of Everton F.C. in Walton, Crystal Palace F.C.'s Selhurst Park in South Norwood, and his masterpiece of Arsenal Stadium which was home of Highbury North London's Arsenal F.C. until 2006.  While some of Arsenal Stadium remains evident, the historic building was repurposed and largely remade as a housing development in that same year.


England

English Art Deco architects include England's premier cinema designer George Coles. Marcus Evelyn Collins and Owen Hyman Collins were the architects behind the Egyptian Deco masterpiece of the Carreras Cigarette Factory in London. The building is often cited as the highpoint of the Egyptian Revival Art Deco movement.

M. E. Collins and O. H. Collin's
Carreras Cigarette Factory, London
Highpoint of Egyptian Revival Deco

Sunlight HouseManchester

Another English architect of importance was Joseph Sunlight. Sunlight is known both as the architect of the eponymous Sunlight House in Manchester, but also as a Liberal Member of Parliament for Shrewsbury.

Thomas Cecil Howitt's career spanned much of the 20th Century, with buildings covering a broad range of architectural styles. In the 1920's and 1930's, Howitt created many Art Deco landmarks, including Birmingham's Baskerville House as well as its Municipal Savings Bank (Broad Street Head Office), produced a series of Art Deco movie houses for Odeon Cinemas at Weston-super-Mare and Bridgwater both in Somerset, at Warley in the West Midlands and at Clacton in Essex. Howitt was also the architect behind one of the most important examples of Art Deco in Wales, the Newport Civic Centre.

Wales

Wales has several important Art Deco buildings, but most are the product not of Welshmen but of English architects. As mentioned above, Thomas Cecil Howitt was the architect behind the Newport Civic Centre.

Sir Percy Edward Thomas'
Swansea Guilhall features
Sveyn Forkbeard's portrait 

Wales' most important Art Deco architect, Sir Percy Edward Thomas, was actually an Englishman too. Although born in South Shields in Tyneside, Thomas can nonetheless claim more Welsh connection as his family moved from England to Cardiff as a child. Thomas created the Guildhall at Swansea, arguably the most important Art Deco building in Wales. The Guildhall is an example of Greek Deco (or "stripped Classical") design. It is, however, the Guildhall's clock tower that is justifiably most famous. Possibly the only example of what one could call "Viking Deco," the 48-meter-high clock tower at one part echoes the features of a Viking longboat, and carries an Art Deco bas relief of Sweyn Forkbeard, the founder of what would become Swansea who became the first of the Danish Viking Kings of Britain in 1013. Thomas was also the architect behind the Art Deco Cardiff Central Rail Station. and the Welsh Temple of Peace and Health.

Finally, Sir Bertram Williams-Ellis is the only truly Welsh architect of major note, although ironically he too was born in Northamptonshire.  William-Ellis is best known for his Portmeirion, the recreation of an Italian village in North Wales that is anything but Art Deco. That said, he is also the architect behind the Morannedd Cafe in Cricceth, an intentionally Art Deco building built, however, in 1954 as a tribute to Art Deco well after the Art Deco movement had ended in the UK. That said, Williams-Ellis did design several Art Deco buildings during the actual movement itself, such as the White House in Llandudno in North Wales.

Malaysia

Arthur Oakley Coltman's
Market Square Clock Tower
 Kuala Lumpur

Virtually all of Kuala Lumpur's extensive Art Deco architecture has its origins with one man: English architect Arthur Oakley Coltman. Coltman brought Art Deco to Malaysia, then called Malaya, a colony of the British Empire. Coltman produced a long list of major works including Kuala Lumpur's iconic Market Square Clock Tower. Other works of Coltman's in Kuala Lumpur include the Oriental Building, the Bagunan Lee Rubber Building (Nan Yi Building), the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, the Odeon Theatre, the Overseas-Chinese Banking Corporation (OCBC) Building, and the Anglo-Oriental Building (now known as Wisma Ekran). 

New Zealand

Napier, New Zealand is one of the main centers of Art Deco architecture in the world, and for an unusual twist of fate.  Napier was struck by a devastating earthquake in 1931. Because of its near total destruction, New Zealand's architect converged on the city and brought Art Deco there along with them. New Zealand's premier Art Deco architects were Louis Hay and E. A. Williams.

Louis Hay's Central Fire Station
Napier, New Zealand
now the Deco Centre of Napier

Louis Hay's works in Napier include Halsbury Chambers, Hawkes Bay Museum, the National Tobacco Company Building, Anderson & Hansen Motors, the Hildebrandt Building, Parkers Chambers, the Abbots Building and the AMP Building (now home to the New Zealand Wine Center).  Hay's Napier Central Fire Station has even been converted into the city's Deco Centre, for preserving its rich Art Deco architectural heritage.

E. A. William's Masson HouseNapier, New Zealand

Just as prolific to the Napier Art Deco reconstruction as Louis Hay was New Zealand's E. A. Williams. Some of his major architectural works in Napier include the Daily Telegraph Building, Daslgety's Building, the Scinde Building, Harston's Music Shop, Masson House, Hawkes Bay Chambers, the Fenwick Building, the Crown Hotel and the Criterion Hotel.

J. T. Watson'sLoo Kee & Co. Building, Napier

Other Art Deco architects from New Zealand also contributed to the Napier Art Deco rebuilding. These include J. T. Mair (designer of the Napier Post Office Building and its Telegraph Exchange), H. Alfred Smith (architect of the Kidsons Building and Smith & Chambers Trust Building), J. T. Watson (architect of the Napier Municipal Theatre, Thackeray House and the Loo Kee & Company Building) and and Edmund Anscombe (creator of the New Zealand Shipping Company Building and the Union Hotel).

Australia

Charles Bruce Dellit's
ANZAC War Memorial, Sydney

Charle Bruce Dellit is the architect behind the ANZAC War Memorial, one of the best-known Art Deco monuments in the world. Dellitt was also the architect behind several other Art Deco buildings including the Kinselas Hotel and Kinselas Chapel in Darlington, and the Randwick Ritz in Randwick.

The Sydney Harbour Bridge is the best-known Art Deco bridge
outside the United States. The iconic structure was primarily designed by John J. C. Bradfield, who was an engineer not an architect.. Bradfield was also the designer of the Art Deco Circular Quay Railway Station, located just beside the bridge.

John J. C. Bradfield's Sydney Harbour Bridge

Australia's master theater architect of the Art Deco era was Henry Eli White. White designed over 130

Henry Eli White's State Theatre, Sydney

theatres in Australia and New Zealand. His State Theatre in Sydney is generally considered the apex of Art Deco Theatre design in Australia. Other theaters designed by White include the Capitol and St. James theaters (both in Sydney), the Majestic in Newtown, and the Tivoli in Brisbane. White also designed many theatres in New Zealand, such as the St. James Theatre in Wellington.

The architects E. H. Henderson and Cuthbert Claude Mortier Whitley produced several important Art Deco buildings in Canberra. E.H. Henderson was the architect behind the Manuka Swimming Pool and Canberra House. Cuthbert Claude Mortier Whitley was the architect behind the Canberra's Patent Office, Ainslee Primary School and Canberra High School (in the suburb of Acton).

Dave Pratt'sAmbassador Hotel, Mackay

Mackay, Queensland became the center of what has been called the Queensland Deco style, and is home to over 25 important Art Deco buildings.  A major fire coupled with a population explosion and economic boom resulted in one of the greatest Art Deco outputs worldwide. Two architects were largely responsible for most of these Mackay's Art Deco buildings.  Harold V. M. Brown and Edwin R. Orchard collaborated on over half (13) of the cities Art Deco masterpieces, including Chaseley House, Holy Trinity Parish Hall, the Belmore Arms, the Metropolitan Hotel, Hotel Mackay (now the Lucky Aussie Hotel) and the Pioneer Shire Office Building. That said, perhaps the most iconic Art Deco building in Mackay is the Ambassador Hotel designed by the builder Dave Pratt.

Chris Marsh's
Hindmarsh Town Hall, Adelaide

Chris Marsh was the architect behind many of the Art Deco building is South Australia. These include the renovation of the , the Capri Theatre in Goodwood, the Brighton Council Municipal Offices, the Greenways Residence in Prospect, and the masterful Hindmarsh Town Hall in Adelaide



Hungary

Béla Jánszky and Tibor Szivessy's
Uranaia Nemzeti Cinema, Budapest

 In Hungary, Art Deco found resistance as Hungarians clung to the Art Nouveau of the now-collapsed Austro-Hungarian Empire. The irony of clinging to Art Nouveau (the NEW art) as a way of holding on to the old is noteworthy. That said, even in this atmosphere, Art Deco surfaced in the work of Béla Jánszky  and Tibor Szivessy. The two collaborated on a number of Art Deco buildings in Budapest including the Puskin Cinema, the Urania Nemzeti Cinema, the 82 Radnóti Miklós Street Building and the Kossuth Lajos Secondary School.Other Hungarian Art Deco architects include Béla  Hofstätter and Ferenc Domány who collaborated on Budapest's Odeon Lloyd Egyptian Theatre, and Lajos Kozma who designed the Art Deco Kner-Villa.

Another Hungarian architect, László Hudec, was responsible for many Art Deco buildings but not Hungary but in Shanghai. Hudec's works in Shanghai includes the Park Hotel, Paulun Hospital, the Wukang Building (formerly Normandie Apartments) among others.

The Netherlands

Tuchinski Theater,  Amsterdam

The most famous Art Deco building in the Netherlands is Amsterdam's Tuschinski Theater, among the most beautiful theaters in the world. The architectural genius behind the the building was Hijman Louis de Jong whose life was sadly cut short when he and the man who commissioned it -- Abraham Icek Tuschinski -- were both murdered at Auschwitz by the Nazis for the crime of being Jews (the theater was temporarily renamed "the Tivoli" under the Germans to rid it of its "Jewish name").  When de Jong's Tuschinski Theater opened in 1921, it was one of the earliest examples of what would become Art Deco in its transition from what had been Art Nouveau.

Jan Duiker and Bernard Bijvoet's
Zonnestraal Sanatorium, Hilversum

The Dutch architect Jans Bilsen was the architect of Drie Hoefijzers Building in Breda. Also from the Netherlands was Jan Duiker who in his early work produced several Art Deco buildings before his own transition to the sparser New Objectivity (or Nieuwe Zakelijkheid) Movement which he helped to found. These include the Cineac Cinema in Amsterdam and, in collaboration with Bernard Bijvoet, the Zonnestraal Sanatorium in Hilversum.





Indonesia

Albert Aalbers' 
Savoy Homann Hotel
Bandung, Indonesia

Probably the most significant Art Deco contributions from the Dutch architects came not in the Netherlands itself but in Indonesia which until 1949 was a Dutch colony.

Dutch architects active in Indonesia included Albert Aalbers, Henri Maclaine-Pont and Wolff Schoemaker who together transformed Bandung, Indonesia (then part of the Dutch East Indies) into an Art Deco highpoint. Aalbers' work in Baudung includes the Savoy Homann Hotel, DENIS Bank and (south of Bandung at Garut) the Grand Hotel Ngamplang.

Henri Maclaine-Pont (Dutch despite the rather un-Dutch name) was a major proponent of blending local culture into Art Deco architectural styles. This is exemplified by his so-called "Tropical Dutch" buildings on the campus of ITB (Bandung Technical Institute).  Maclaine-Pont intentionally used local materials and indigenous roof design mixed with the "ultimate bungalow" villas of the San Francisco architects Julia Morgan and Bernard Maybeck to created an Art Deco, Javanese bungalow for non-residential use.

Henri Maclaine-Pont's Tropical Dutch Art DecoWest Hall, Bandung Technical Institute

Wolff Schoemaker's Villa Isola

Schoemaker's Preanger Hotel is classic Art Deco while his Pasteur Institute of Indonesia begins to bring elements of local Javanese art and building design into a still primarily Art Deco building. It is with his masterwork --Villa Isola -- that Schoemaker fully combined Art Deco with Indonesian influences. This Indonesian influence is evident in many areas from small ornamentation to the roof design mimicking Sumatran local roofs. Most notably, the structure of the building and layout of the gardens contain both the the circular forms of Art Deco with an intentional echo of the ancient Candi temples in the eastern half of the island.  Schoemaker's Villa Isola is often noted as the premier example of Indonesian Art Deco.

The Philippines

Juan Nakpil's Quezon HallUniversity of the Philippines, Manila

Art Deco found fertile ground in which to grow in the Philippines. This is somewhat attributable to the fact that the Philippines was a territory of the United States until 1946. Unlike the case in Indonesia and Malaysia, though, Filipino Art Deco architecture was the output of Filipino architects, not imported architects from the colonial power.

Chief among these Filipino Art Deco architects was Juan Nakpil --  called the "Father of Philippine Architecture" --was the premier Filipino architect of the Art Deco period. His works include the Rizal Shrine at Intramuros, the Captain Pepe Building and Capital Theater in Manila, and his Art Deco masterpiece Quezon Hall Administration Building at the University of the Philippines.

Another major Filipino Art Deco architects is Juan Arellano, architect of the Cebu Provincial Capitol. Arellano also co-designed with fellow Filipino Art Deco architect Pablo Antonio Manila's National Museum of the Philippines (former Legislative Building).

Italy

Italy in the interwar years saw a mix of influences. None of this was openly called Art Deco, and some of it was clearly the opposite of the modernization characteristic of the movement; this is especially notable with the Novecento Italiano movement (the attempts to revive Italy's ancient architectural forms.   Art Deco in Italy, however, was evident in the "New Rationalism" or "Fascist Architecture" (depending on one's politics). The result are a mix of styles.

Marcello Piacentini's Teatro dell'Opera, Rome

Ulisse Stacchini's Milan Central Train Station represented something of an ornate version Art Deco, with some Novecento features. Giovanni Mengoni's Mercato Centrale in Florence has Art Deco coloring and design on a streamlined classical frame.

Ettore Sottsass, Sr.'s Meran Town Hall in the South Tyrol was held up as a paragon of Fascist
architecture when it was built, but would be called Art Deco were it to have been built somewhere else.  This is equally the case with Marcello Piacentini's Palazzo Piacentini in Reggio Calabria (now the Museo Nazionale della Magna Greci) or his facade for the Teatro dell'Opera in Roma.

Falling somewhere between Art Nouveau and Art Deco (and arguably more Art Deco) is the "Liberty Architecture" movement that was unique to Italy. The region of Versilia is a major centers of the style, with works especially of note by Afredo Belluomini such as the Bagno Balena,  Supercinema and Viareggio's Caffè Margherita.

Eritrea

In an odd twist of circumstances, Art Deco found one of its greatest flowerings in Asmara, the capital of what is now Eritrea and was at the time an Italian colony.

Giuseppe Pettazzi's
FIAT-Tagliero station
Asmara, Eritrea

Giuseppe Pettazzi was the leading architect responsible for converting the then-Italian colony of Eritrea into an Art Deco center. His FIAT-Tagliero in Asmara is a classic Art Deco work.   Pettazzi was the leading architect responsible for converting the then-Italian colony of Eritrea into an Art Deco center. His FIAT-Tagliero in Asmara is a classic Art Deco work.  

Several dozen Art Deco buildings rose out of the Eritrean desert, making it one of the most architecturally modern cities not only in Africa but anywhere in the world. Among the most notable of the architects involved were Bruno Salfani who built the Casa del Fascio (Fascist House), Roberto Cappellano who built the Cinema Roma,  Carlo Mazzetti who created the IRGA Building, Antonio Vitaliti who designed the Villa Grazia, and the Albergo Italia which was a collaboration of Johannes Primo and Carlo Iachino.

Other Countries

Other Art Deco architects from outside North America include Viktor Sulčič and Michel Polak. Argentina's Art Deco heritage is largely the work of the Slovenian-born Viktor Sulčič, creator of La Bombonera Stadium and the Abasto mall. Switzerland's Michel Polak was best known for his Europa Building in Brussels.

In Turkey, Art Deco represented the new Kemalist state as opposed to the old Ottoman Empire it replaced. As the new nation's capital moved from the old capital of Istanbul to the new one at Ankara, Art Deco architecture came with it. This is most visible in Şevki Balmumcu's Ankara Opera House and Şekip Akalinis' Central Rail Station in Ankara.

CONCLUSION

This has been a very small sampling of some of the architects who contributed to the Art Deco movement in architecture outside of North America. There are dozens of others who probably deserve to be mentioned. This is only one person's personal tastes reflected here. 

For an overview of some notable Art Deco buildings from XX countries around the world, please see my earlier post Art Deco Outside North America.

As always, I welcome your comments and input. 

IMAGE SOURCES

René Levavasseur's Trans-Atlantic Station, Cherbourg, photo by Thbz: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/René_Levavasseur_(architecte)#mediaviewer/Fichier:Cherbourg-Gare-transatlantique-pano.jpg

Church of Sainte Jeanne d'Arc, Nice, photo by Patrice Semeria: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainte_Jeanne_d%27Arc_Church,_Nice#mediaviewer/File:Saint_Joan_of_Arc_-_Nice_-_France.jpg

Auguste Bluysen's Casino de Vittel: http://fiul.weebly.com/news/visiter-les-vosges-avec-marylou-tour-the-vosges-with-marylou12

Biarritz Building, Rio de Janeiro, photo by Daniel Casoy:  http://www.sajous-henri.com/documents%20sajous/HENRI%20SAJOUS/OBRAS%20SAJOUS/RIO%20DE%20JANEIRO/edificio%20biarritz/Daniel%20Casoy%20%20Biblioteca%20ViverCidades%20P.jpg

Christ the Redeemer statue, Rio de Janeiro, Photo by JC Salmon: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_the_Redeemer_(statue)#mediaviewer/File:Cristo_Redentor_Rio_de_Janeiro_4.jpg

Plinio Botelho do Aramal's Bank of São Paulo Building, photo by Filipe Mostarda: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altino_Arantes_Building#mediaviewer/File:Banespa_(By_Felipe_Mostarda).JPG

Rino Levi's Porchat Building, São Paulo: http://armazemperisc.blogspot.com/2012/06/nem-o-melhor-nem-o-pior.html

Juan María Aubriot and Ricardo Valabrega's Palacio Lapido, Montevideo, photo by Federico Corral: http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacio_Lapido#mediaviewer/Archivo:Palacio_Lapido.jpg

Arsenal Stadium, London: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arsenal_Stadium_Highbury_east_facade.jpg

Sweyn Forkbeard's portrait, Swansea Guildhall, photo by L. M. Perry: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guildhall,_Swansea#mediaviewer/File:Sweyn.jpg

Carreras Cigarette Factory, London, photo by M@ggie on Panoramio: http://static.panoramio.com/photos/large/55475223.jpg

Sunlight House, Manchester: https://www.wantspacegotspace.co.uk/uploads/users/365/files/02_May_2012/NORTH/Sunlight_House.jpg

Market Square Clock Tower, Kuala Lumpur:  http://blog.audioguidemalaysia.com/page/11/

Charles Bruce Dellit's ANZAC War Memorial, photo by Hpeterswald: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANZAC_War_Memorial#mediaviewer/File:ANZAC_War_Memorial.jpg

John J. C. Bradfield's Sydney Harbour Bridge, photo by JJ Harrison: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Harbour_Bridge#mediaviewer/File:Sydney_Harbour_Bridge_from_Circular_Quay.jpg

Dave Pratt's Ambassador Hotel, Mackay: http://www.busaroundglobe.com/globe/country/australia_globe/au-41_en.htm

Canberra House: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010-09-23/parliament-house-canberra/2351368

Chris Marsh's Hindmarsh Town Hall, Adelaide: https://c2.staticflickr.com/2/1325/1317888890_00d6839bc8_z.jpg

Louis Hay's Deco Centre, Napier, New Zealand: http://www.napier.govt.nz/services/planning-and-resource-consents/heritage-buildings/building?rid=49

E. A. Williams' Masson House, Napier New Zealand:vhttp://www.napier.govt.nz/services/planning-and-resource-consents/heritage-buildings/building?rid=90

J. T. Watson's Loo Kee & Co. Building, Napier: http://www.napier.govt.nz/services/planning-and-resource-consents/heritage-buildings/building?rid=86

Béla Jánszky and Tibor Szivessy's Uranaia Nemzeti Cinema, Budapest: http://lakjonjol.hu/cikk/meleg-burkolas/299-a-mozgokep-legszebb-palotai#

Tuchinski Theater, Photo by Amsterdam Municipal Department for the Preservation and Restoration of Historic Buildings and Sites (bMA): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Haltusch.jpg

Jan Duiker and Bernard Bijvoet's Zonnestraal Sanatorium, Hilversum, photo by Jannes Linders: http://www.wmf.org/node/2088

Albert Aalbers' Savoy Homann Hotel, Bandung, Indonesia, photo by Jagawana: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Aalbers#mediaviewer/File:Savoy_Homann_Hotel_-_Oceanwave.jpg

Henri Maclaine-Pont's Tropical Dutch West Hall, Bandung Technical Institute, Photograph by Christian Wopperer: http://thisflyingdutchman.blogspot.com/2012/12/bandung-is-like-paris-err-sorta.html

Wolff Schoemaker's Villa Isola, Bandung, photo by Bandung Traveler: http://bandungtraveler.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/VILLA-ISOLA.jpg

Juan Nakpil's Quezon Hall, photo by kriseldajocson: http://kriseldajocson.wordpress.com/2012/03/

Giuseppe Pettazzi's FIAT-Tagliero station, Asmara: http://www.ign.com/boards/threads/culture-porn-daily-post-10-6-2013-fiat-tagliero-building.453415253/

Marcello Piacentini's Teatro dell'Opera, Rome: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro_dell%27Opera_di_Roma#mediaviewer/File:Castro_Pretorio_-_teatro_dell%27Opera_di_Roma_(Costanzi)_facciata_piacentini_1010030.JPG

Ramadan 2020 and the Pandemic

The Islamic observance of the holy month of Ramadan (رمضان) for 2020 begins on (or near to, depending on the sighting of the moon) the evening of Thursday, April 23 and ends on the evening of Saturday, May 23 with the concluding holiday of Eid al Fitr.  

As with all Islamic holidays, the actual date depends on the sightability of the moon. While the most commonly accepted date for this year is for sunset of April 23, some debate exists among certain sects as to whether the sighting of the moon should be on the same day as the sighting of the moon in Mecca or the day following. Because I have received criticism for stating one date only in the past, let me state clearly here that this overview is meant to be informational only and is in no way intended to indicate that one view or the other is correct.

All students, employees and faculty who request it, should be accommodated. For most Muslims, the first and last days of Ramadan are usually spent in worship and students, employees and faculty should be excused from activities if requested. Some Muslims also observe an exclusion period in the mosque (Iʿtikāf ) during the last 10 days of Ramadan and may need accommodation.

Importantly, during the entire month of Ramadan, believers fast during the daylight hours. Part of accommodation should therefore include discouraging others from eating or drinking in class or in other settings where attendance is mandatory. Consideration should also be given to requiring attendance at meetings where food is served (as in serving meals or snacks during the meeting).

Ramadan: Islam’s Holy Month

Ramadan is a time of worship and contemplation in Islam. Ramadan is observed by all sects.  The month of Ramadan – the ninth in the Islamic lunar calendar -- is also when it is believed the first verses of the Koran were sent down from heaven in 610 CE.

It should be noted, however, that this was not the Koran in its entirety which was revealed through the Prophet Mohammed (عليه السلام) during a 23-year span (only concluding in 632 CE).

Shared Ramadan Observances

While Ramadan customs vary from culture to culture, almost all Muslims share in common the observances of fasting, prayer and the conclusion of the month with Eid al-Fitr. The observance of Ramadan is a central practice of the faith, and its observance is one of the Five Pillars of Islam.

Fasting or Sawm (صوم‎)

Muslims observing Ramadan fast during daylight hours. The fast includes all food, drink, recreational drugs, sex and tobacco. Most Muslims also consider the fast to include a ban on evil thoughts, gossip, lying, cheating and fighting from dawn to sunset.

Those observing Ramadan will usually want to break their fast at sunset.  Breakfast or lunch meetings, snacks brought for a class and the like should be reconsidered accordingly. Also, even employees, students and others who may not always observe the prayer at the setting of the sun (Maghrib) may do so during this month (note that if it is not possible for students to pray at the appointed times, they are permitted to pray as soon as they can after that – which might, for example, affect an student’s willingness to stay after class or an employee to stay late for a project). Each day the fast is broken with prayer and a meal called the iftar (إفطار ).

Taraweeh ( تراويح‎) and the Recitation of the Koran

In the evening following the iftar it is common for many people to go to the mosque for Taraweeh or night prayers. Many also go to visit family and friends and recite the prayers together there. Some schools of thought consider Taraweeh compulsory while others consider the prayers voluntary but strongly encouraged. The actually number and nature of the pairs of rakaʿāt recited also vary according to sect and custom. Because feelings run very deeply on this issue and I do not wish to in any way appear to endorse one practice or another, it may be best to refer to the reading lists at the end of this post to read about these different views.

Many Muslims recite out loud the whole Koran during the month of Ramadan. This is in imitation of what the Prophet Mohammed (عليه السلام) during his lifetime. Some families have a tradition of gathering together as an extended family or in groups of friends to recite the Koran as a group activity. In nations with Muslim majority populations or in which Islam is the state religion, the recitation of the Koran is often broadcast over radio and television stations.

Iʿtikāf ( اعتكاف‎)

Lailat ul Qadr

Though not a requirement, many Muslims choose to go into a state of Iʿtikāf or seclusion (usually in a mosque) for a period during Ramadan. This is most commonly for the last ten days of Ramadan so that they can be praying and reading the Koran on Lailat ul Qadr.  Lailat ul Qadr or the Night of Power was the night in which the first verses of the Koran were revealed to the Prophet Mohammed (عليه السلام. The Koran teaches that  "Lailat  ul Qadr is better than a thousand months" (Sura 97: 3) and so prayers are much greater in power then. Nevertheless, the actual night of Lailat  ul Qadr remains unknown, except that it occurs within the last ten days (some believe last five days) of Ramadan.

Conclusion of Ramadan with Eid al-Fitr

Depending on sightability of the moon, the evening of Thursday, July 7 will be the start of  Eid al-Fitr. The festival marks the end of the month-long fast of Ramadan.  It is traditionally a time for meals with the extended family and friends that lasts for two or three days. 

Muslims also give Zakat  ( زكاة‎) or alms to the poor throughout Ramadan. Muslims especially give alms to the poor in honor of Eid. This is called Zakat al-Eid.  Typically, people give a donation (in food or cash or both) to the poor. Many Muslim communities set up charity tables and public food kitchens or booths for the poor  Eid al-Fitr comes at the end of a month of particular piety and dedication to God, the holiday is also a time for giving forgiveness and praying for peace and unity.

The traditional Arabic greeting for the Eid is “Eid mubarak” which more or less translates as “Blessed Eid” or just “Happy Eid” (which can be said as well, of course).

Ramadan and the COVID-19 Pandemic 

This year -- for Ramadan in 2020 -- Muslims must consider how the global COVID-19 pandemic will affect the holy month.

Restrictions around the world demand social distancing, curfews and stay-at-home lockdown laws in place to fight the spread of the virus. This, in turn, restricts gatherings for iftar and public charity tables and centers. These are now banned or heavily curtailed in most countries. Likewise Ramadan in many countries is a time of crowded street stalls and bazaars selling food, clothing and more. These too have been shut down or heavily limited because of the need to curb the spread of the virus.

Even public prayer in mosques has been prohibited in many nations. Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei has called on people to avoid collective gatherings (although without directly banning them). Saudi Arabia's has ordered the shortening of prayers with public attendance at the Two Holy Mosques at Medina and Mecca, and the continued closure of mosques at all other mosques. Islam's third holiest place, the  al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, is also closed to public attendance. 

Mosques and public gatherings will continue to be closed throughout Ramadan in many Muslim-majority countries including Egypt, Jordan, Algeria, Kuwait, Oman, the UAE and Qatar. Morocco's mosques remain closed through (at this time of writing) May 20 (so most of Ramadan). Tunisia has warned that COVID-19 carriers infecting others will be prosecuted for manslaughter.  Bangladesh had suspended public prayers but mass protests followed. It remains unknown if the country can actually enforce its ban. Indonesia, which has the world's largest Muslim population, has closed mosques in affected areas -- including Jakarta -- while allowing gatherings where the virus has not reached. Travel across the country has been restricted or eliminated entirely. This eliminates the annual mudik or annual mass travel of people home to see family (in 2019, 19.5 million people made that journey home).

Some major Muslim countries have, however, bucked the trend and left open or re-opened mosques. Most notable of these is Pakistan, which has the world's second largest population. The restrictions on gatherings in mosques set in place in March have been lifted for Ramadan in Pakistan.

Bahrain has allowed for some public prayers in its al-Fateh Grand Mosque. The worshippers and clerics, though, will follow strict social distancing rules.

Finally, in Muslim-minority countries mosques (as most religious sites such as churches and synagogues) will remain closed for Ramadan. This includes most of Europe, Australia, Canada and most of the states of the United States among others.

What follows in the section below is a description of traditional Ramadan traditions in different countries. Almost all of these include public gatherings. Likewise the discussion above regarding joining in groups to break the fast and to go to the mosque involve large gatherings as well.  Beyond the share observances described above, customs vary from country to country. Only a few of these are described below (but please add in the comment section those from your own traditions). 

 

Ramadan Customs Around the World

Beyond the share observances described above, customs vary from country to country. Only a few of these are described below (but please add in the comment section those from your own traditions).

Albania

Ramadan (in Albanian Ramazani) has particular significance in Albania. Under Communist rule, Albanians were prohibited from signs of worship. Ramadan was significant, though, since fasting could not be detected by the atheist authorities. With the end of the repressive regime of Enver Hoxha in 1991, though, public worship for Muslims and Eastern Orthodox Christians alike began to flourish. It is significant that virtually no religious conflict occurs between Muslims and Christians in Albania (unlike the neighboring countries of the former Yugoslavia where religion had not been banned). Indeed, at Ramadan, Muslim children now commonly share trays of Ramadan treats with their Christian counterparts just as the Christian children share Easter eggs with their Muslim friends. It is also not uncommon for Muslims to be invited Christians to their homes to break the fast with them even though the Christians were not fasting, and some Christians hold meals for breaking the fast in their own homes for their Muslim friends.

Since the fall of Communism, the Ramadan drumming of the lodra through the streets is common again. The lodra is the national instrument and appears on images for Radio Tirana. Men go through the streets beating a lodra so that people wake up to eat can eat before the sun rises. The man returns beating the lodra as the sun sets to announce the breaking of the fast. 

Albanian byrek

While Albanians offer a wide variety of food in different parts of the couuntry to break the fast, one of the most common Ramadan specialties is byrek. This is a a fried pastry made of phyllo dough and stuffed with spinach, meat or milk curd. People eat byrek cold or heated up depending on preference. A recipe for Albanian byrek is available at

http://recipes.wikia.com/wiki/Albanian_Byrek

Egypt

Egypt comes alive at night during Ramadan. Shops, often closed during the day, stay open into to 3:00 or 4:00 in the morning and buildings are strung with lights and other decorations.

Fanoos lanterns for sale
in Cairo

Children celebrate Ramadan with a fanoos or traditional Ramadan lantern. These lantern are constructed of tin with colored glass (or sometimes plastic) panes through which shines the light from a candle placed in side.

One particularity for Egypt is fairly modern as Egypt grew to become center for Arabic-language television. To mark Ramadan, the Egyptian entertainment industry introduces over half of all Egyptian TV serials produced each year.

Ful medames

Special foods also mark Ramadan in Egypt. Traditionally, Egyptians begin their morning meal with ful medames. Often considered Egypt's national dish, ful medames dates back to the time of ancient Egypt and the Pharaohs. The dish is made of fava beans simmered together with olive oil, lemon juice, garlic and other spices. One recipe for ful medames is available at:

http://www.epicurious.com/recipes/food/views/Ful-Medames-Egyptian-Brown-Fava-Beans-352993

The traditional Ramadan drink of Egypt is called Qamar el-din. This is made from sheets of dried apricot paste boiled in water.

India and Pakistan

Hands decorated with henna

In India and Pakistan, Muslim girls traditionally dress festively with gold or multicolored bracelets and bangles. It is common for Ramadan in general -- and especially for Eid--  for girls to paint each others’ hands with mehndi (henna designs).

Samosas

While Ramadan foods vary from region to region throughout India and Pakistan, one food common to iftar throughout both countries is the samosa.  A samosa is a fried, triangle-shaped pastry stuffed with any number of fillings. These can include vegetables, meat, chicken, potatoes and more.This accompanied with a dipping chutney of, from among others, mint, coriander, tamarind.  In fact, there are so many varieties of samosas, that an entire site is dedicated to them at

 http://www.samosa-recipe.com/

Indonesia

Bedug

The end of the day's fast in Indonesia is traditionally heralded by pounding of the bedug, a special drum for the occasion. Even in urban areas where an actual bedug may not be played, broadcasts of the sound of the drum are broadcast over radios and televisions. On the last night of Ramadan (called Lebaran), bedug players are often joined by large groups of musicians who play well into the night in a celebrative parade.

Panjat pinang pole-climbing 

In many Indonesia towns and especially in Jakarta, panjat pinang pole-climbing competitions are held at Ramadan. The poles are made from nut trees that have been smoothed down and covered with grease. No one person is usually able to climb the pole, so the climbing is usually a group effort. At the top of the pole are a collection of small prizes called panjat pinang. When someone reaches the top and grabs any of the prizes, they share them with those who helped them up the pole.

At the end of Ramada on Eid al-Fitr (called Idul Fitri in Bahasa Indonesia), it is customary in most Indonesian villages to go on Mohon Maaf visits following morning prayers. Mohon Maaf comes from the phrase “Mohon Maaf Lahir Batin” which means "forgive me from the bottom of my heart for my wrongdoings in the past year." Generally, the visits go in order of the most senior member of a family down and at each house, with food provided at each stop along the way. 

 Indonesians trapped in traffic
in Karawang at conclusion of Eid al-Fitr

Many Indonesians have roots in the countryside even if they live in the large cities. This poses a special problem for Indonesia each year at Ramadan, as millions of people leave the cities for their hometowns. While many people in other countries leave for their hometowns as well at Ramadan, the situation is arguably at its most extreme in Indonesia. The expatriate information site "Living in Indonesia" estimated that last year for Ramadan 2011 over 7 million people left Jakarta alone to go visit their traditional homes. The crush of traffic at both the beginning and end of Ramadan therefore predictably overtaxes the national transportation infrastructure each year.

Malaysia

Malays shopping for flowers
for Ramadan

For Malays, people traditionally visit not only living relatives but also to visit graveyards to visit those relatives who have passed on. Ramadan is often a time of brightly-colored decorations and clothing among Malays. Many people decorate their homes with flowers and women in particular often wear colorful headscarves.  

A Ramadan Bazaar
in Kuala Lumpur

Throughout Malaysia on Ramadan, it is common to see "Ramadan bazaars." These are Ramadan counterparts to the year-round Malaysian night markets (pasar malam). Instead of opening at night, though, the Ramadan markets open in the late afternoon as people buy their food for the evening post-fasting meal. It should be noted that in Malaysia's multicultural society, the Ramadan bazaars are very popular with non-Muslims and Muslims alike.

Qatar

Qatari children dressed for Garangao

Qataris celebrate the 14th day of Ramadan with a special celebration called Garangao. The night of  Garangao is a children's celebration. Children dress in traditional clothing, sing a special Garangao song for their families at home and are rewarded with sweets.

After this, the tradition is somewhat akin to the North American Halloween as the children go door to door for what is called a "nutting night out" as the children collect nuts and other treats from neighbors. Some Kuwaiti children, like their counterparts in Qatar, also celebrate Garangao in the middle of the holy month.

Kuwait

Firing the cannon
at Naif Palace

Since the arrival of the first cannon in Kuwait in 1907, it has been a tradition at Naif Palace in Kuwait City to fire a cannon shot to mark the end of the fast. It is customary to bring children to the gather around the cannon before iftar so they can celebrate in the blast. In recent years, the children have been joined by tourists -- both Muslim and non-Muslim alike -- for whom the blasts have become a Ramadan attraction.

Luqmat Al-Qadi

On the eve of the first night of Ramadan, Kuwaitis celebrate with a pre-Ramadan festivity called Graish. At Graish, people gather with family and friends and welcome the holiday with the foods traditional to Ramadan in Kuwait. These include dates and special sweets such as Luqmat Al-Qadi. Luqmat Al-Qadi are balls of dough mixed with saffron, cardamom, milk and butter that are boiled in fat and then rolled in syrup or sugar.  A recipe for Luqmat al-Qadi can be found at:

http://helpcook.blogspot.com/2009/10/luqmat-al-qadi-arabic-sweet-balls.html

Incidentally during Ottoman times,  Luqmat al-Qadi made its way from the Gulf countries to Turkey as lokma and Greece as loukmades.   Luqmat al-Qadi is also the source from which the Indian and Pakistani gulab jaman originally derived.

Kyrgyzstan

Traditionally at Ramadan, the Kyrgyz accompany their evening meal with drinks made from special Ramadan kurut. A kurut is a dried yogurt ball.

Ramadan kurut balls
Osh Bazaar, Bishkek

Normal kurut are fairly small and extremely salty. By contrast, the special Ramadan kurut are roughly the size of someone's fist and are much salty. While regular, small-sized kurut are available all year long where they are sold throughout the country in plastic jars, the special Ramadan kurut are much harder to come by, and as a result are a special thing for most Kyrgyz.  These special Ramadan kurut are sold only in the Osh Bazaar in the capital city of Bishkek.

The Kyrgyz use Ramadan kurut to make a variety of Ramadan beverages. The balls are dissolved in carbonated water and mixed with tomatoes and onions for a savory drink. The balls are dissolved in hot water and mixed with sugar and creamy oil for a dessert drink. In either case, the kurut drinks are special for the holiday and represent a one-time-a-year tradition.

Mauritania

Ramadan in Mauritania is a time when traditional games are played, especially among women. 

What is particularly unusual in this tradition is that the games are primarily played by women in what is otherwise a primarily male-oriented society when it comes to competitions.

As the Mohamed Yahya Abdel Wedoud in his article "Mauritanians mark Ramadan with traditional games and neighbourly visits" explains:

After prayers, traditional games such as ekrour and essik dominate the Ramadan nightlife, especially for women. Women throughout the country form teams and compete with each other.

 http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/features/2009/09/03/feature-02

Mauritanian woman playing traditional Ramadan game  

Morocco

A Morrocan n'far blowing his horn

In Morocco, a tradition exists in which a n'far (a special Ramadan equivalent to a town crier) walks down the streets playing a long, one-note n'far horn (similar to a brass vuvuzela) in the morning to wake everyone up in time for the last meal before sunrise. In many towns, being selected as the n'far is a high honor and usually bestowed upon an individual who knows everyone in the neighborhood well.

Moroccan chebbakia

Morocco is famous for its many special Ramadan treats, especially sweets. These include the anise and sesame-seed bread called qrashel, the turnover-like briwat, the crepe-like baghrir, and especially that most famous of all Moroccan sweets: the honey-soaked, sesame-sprinkled chebbakia. 
One recipe for chebakkia can be found at http://moroccanfood.about.com/od/tipsandtechniques/ss/How_to_make_Chebakia.htm

Turkey

Ramazan (the Turkish name of Ramadan) is generally a festive time throughout Turkey. Buildings and trees, especially in rural areas, are decorated with colored lights and booths are set up for the month selling traditional foods, religious books and a wide variety of Ramazan specials.

 Lokum (Turkish delight)

Throughout the small towns of Turkey and even in some larger cities, special Ramazan drummers go through the street banging on drums. Their purpose is  to wake people before the sun rises so they have time to eat.

The three days after Ramazan concludes is celebrated with the Sugar Festival (Şeker Bayramı) when -- as the name suggests -- sweets and candies are eaten. Traditionally, in addition to offering sweets to friends and family at home, children go from door to door ask for candy.  Most famous of the many sweets offered is lokum, known through most of the world as "Turkish delight."  A recipe for the treat can be found at

http://www.recipesource.com/ethnic/africa/middle-east/turkish/lokum1.html

Concluding Comment

As with all of my commentaries, this overview is meant only as an informational message. It in no way is meant to suggest that one interpretation is in any way better than another regarding how to celebrate Ramadan  

That said, I am open to your input. Please feel free to share your comments for improvement (or support for that matter) with me. Ramadan Mubarek!

Want To Know More?

BBC Religions: Islam, "Ramadan," http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/practices/ramadan_1.shtml

Murray Candle, "Ramadan: A Mosaic of Traditions Around the World," http://murraycandle.wordpress.com/2012/07/11/ramadan-a-mosaic-of-traditions-around-the-world/

Emel, ""Ramadan Across the Globe," http://emel.com/article?id=88&a_id=2446

Fisabilillah Publications, "Complete Guide to Ramadan," http://www.glasgowmuslims.com/sites/default/files/fisabilillah_complete_guide_ramadhan.pdf

Michael A. Fredericks, AllMalaysia.com, "Ramadan," http://allmalaysia.info/2011/08/19/ramadan/

Haq Islam, "Ramadan," http://www.haqislam.org/articles/ramadan/

Holidays.net, "Ramadan," http://holidays.net/ramadan/

Huda, About.com, "What is Ramadan?" http://islam.about.com/od/ramadan/f/ramadanintro.htm

Living in Indonesia, "Ramadan and Lebaran in Indonesia," http://www.expat.or.id/info/lebaran.html

Jennifer Maughan, "Ramadan Traditions," Life123, http://www.life123.com/holidays/more-holidays/september-holidays/ramadan.shtml

Muhajabah.com, "Ramadan FAQ http://www.muhajabah.com/ramadan-faq.htm

Juliette Schmidt, OnIslam.net, "In Ramadan: A Journey Around the World," http://www.onislam.net/english/culture-and-entertainment/traditions/448896-ramadanaroundtheworld.html

TheEid.com, "Ramadan," http://www.theeid.com/ramadan/

Morocco World News, "Ramadan Life and Traditions in Ramadan," http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2014/06/132599/ramadan-life-and-traditions-in-morocco/

Washington Post, "How Muslims around the world celebrate the month of Ramadan," http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/how-muslims-around-the-world-celebrate-the-month-of-ramadan/2012/07/17/gJQAu8X7qW_story.html

Clip-Art Credits

Opening clip art: http://i1.squidoocdn.com/resize/squidoo_images/250/draft_lens19160628module157196200photo_1330258970aaa__a.jpg

Ramadan fast clip art (adapted from): http://fc09.deviantart.net/fs71/f/2010/224/f/3/RAMADAN_MUBARAK_1431h_by_bx.jpg

Mosque clip art: http://www.clker.com/cliparts/8/2/2/f/1282647222988584111mosque.svg.med.png

Lailat ul-Qadr clip art: http://sapnamagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/laylat-al-qadr.jpg

Radio Tirana lodra: http://web.mclink.it/MJ0350/libera/tirana/tiran19.jpg

Albanian byrek: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Evb%C3%B6re%C4%9Fi.jpg
Egyptian fanoos lanterns for sale: http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ramadanlanterns.htm

Henna hands: http://www.america.gov/multimedia/photogallery.html#/30145/multi_ramadan/

Samosa: http://recipesnest.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/samosa.jpg

Bedug drum: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_kXYte55FGyo/SKQqfZtVKkI/AAAAAAAAAN8/wTs3t3m6iMo/s320/bedug.jpg

Panjat pinang pole climbers: http://www.odditycentral.com/pics/panjat-pinang-a-slippery-tradition-of-thailand.html

Indonesians trapped in traffic in Karawang at conclusion of Eid al-Fitr: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/archive/01712/ramadan-indonesia2_1712808i.jpg

Ramadan flowers for sale in Malaysia:  http://www.america.gov/multimedia/photogallery.html#/30145/multi_ramadan/

Ramada Bazaar, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: http://allmalaysia.info/2011/08/19/ramadan/

Qatari children dressed for Garangao: http://www.cbq.com.qa/NewsDetails.aspx?id=344

Iftar cannon, Naif Palace, Kuwait: http://www.q8nri.com/home/2010/08/17/iftar-cannon-a-source-of-attraction-in-kuwait-in-ramadan/

Luqmat al-Qadi: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Loukoumades.jpg

Ramadan kurut balls, Osh Bazaar, Bishkek: http://students.sras.org/what-bishkek-eats-for-ramadan/

Mauritanian traditional game: http://farm4.staticflickr.com/3269/2617080471_a7e13ef144_z.jpg
Turkish delight: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T_Honey.jpg

A Morrocan n'far blowing his horn:https://bandbaji.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/cs6-1.jpg

Moroccan chebbakia: http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2012/07/47742/moroccan-ramadan-pastry-recipe-for-chebbakia/

Lokum (Turkish delight):  http://food.detik.com/ramadan/read/2013/07/10/180832/2298527/297/6/legit-gurih-lokum-dan-baklava-sajian-buka-dari-turki

Closing clip art: http://fc02.deviantart.net/fs12/i/2006/265/5/9/Ramadan_Mubarak_by_Muslim_Women.jpg